Friday, May 22, 2015

ETAS 2015



 

Title of presentation: Teaching advanced grammar to adult learners C1/C2 level
Brief abstract (max. 50 words / make sure you specify your target group):
This talk will help you tackle some of the trickier advanced grammar points for adult learners.  It will demystify:
·         Relative clauses:  GB or US style? How is usage changing?
·         Subjunctive:  formal or informal usage? 
·         Reported speech: how strictly are the rules applied?
·         Passive voice:  which are the useful forms today?

Presenter’s bio-data (max. 20 words): 
Carol Waites teaches advanced English and writing skills to international civil servants at the United Nations in Geneva.

 

 

Advanced Grammar


Contents



January 2015 © Carol Waites, Staff Development and Learning Section, United Nations Office at Geneva.

Introductory exercise

Fill in the blank.  Put several options if you think there are.  What is the difference?  What is the grammar point being examined?

1.       They suggested that the section ________________ (review) their request. 
2.       Medical services recommends that she ______________ (consult) a doctor to get a second opinion.
3.       I suggest that she ____________(go)  to the secretary to see if she can help.
4.       A suitcase _____________ has no handle is useless.
5.       Consult our website which is learning.unog.ch.  (correct?)
6.       It _____________(report)  that the war will increase in momentum if troops ____________ (not send) soon to control the situation.
7.       The section announced that it ______ (hold) a meeting soon to inform the staff of the changes.

Discuss

1                     According to writing style guides and Word style, using the passive voice is best avoided.  How do you teach passive voice?  When do you suggest they use it? 

2                     With relative clauses, what do you teach?  What is the rule you teach with ‘which or that’?
For example, is this sentence OK?  ‘I would like to show you the book which I just bought.’

3                     Do you teach reported speech?  How strict are you about tense changes in reported speech?  In what contexts is it important to be strict and when can we be liberal?

4                     How do you teach the subjunctive?
What aspects do you categorize as subjunctive? 
What about ‘unreal past’?  Do you teach that in this category or separately? 
How do you deal with was/were and ‘suggest’ + various possible structures?

 1     Active voice

Active, not passive

Task:
}  Great interest has been shown by the public in the work of UNICEF.
}  Your letter of 16 January has been received.

Use the active voice rather than the passive voice

English usually has on average 15% passive sentences.  Passive voice shifts the responsibility, and sounds impersonal.  More and more journalistic articles and texts have 0% passive voice today.  Things have become much more personalized. 
Why?
The active voice puts the person back into the writing and makes the reader feel included.  It is action-oriented. As an editor of the United Nations said:  ‘would you rather do or be done to?’ 
Try to find the subject and use the active verb.  Make the organization sound like it is composed of people.  
Examples:
Passive: The statement was read by the representative of Albania.
Active: The representative of Albania read the statement.
Passive: All applications will be reviewed by the committee in early April.
Active: The committee will review all applications in early April.

Tips
Using the readability statistics, check your percentage of passive sentences. (English has an average of 15% of passive sentences. )
Word grammar check also underlines passive sentences asking you to consider revising them.  If you can, do so.

Tradition and the Passive Voice[1]

More than a century ago, scientists typically wrote in an active style that included the first-person pronouns I and we. Beginning in about the 1920s, however, these pronouns became less common as scientists adopted a passive writing style.
Considered to be objective, impersonal, and well suited to science writing, the passive voice became the standard style for medical and scientific journal publications for decades.
There were exceptions, however. For instance, in 1953, one elegantly written paper began:
We wish to suggest a structure for the salt of deoxyribose nucleic acid (D.N.A.).1
The opening sentence of Watson and Crick's classic article is simple, direct, and clear. But suppose the authors had taken the passive point of view:
In this paper, a structure is suggested for the salt of deoxyribose nucleic acid (D.N.A.).
The emphasis is now on the receiver of the action (the structure), but at a price—the sentence has lost its clarity (who suggested?), energy (passive verb), and overall impact.


Emphasize the Active Voice

Nowadays, most medical and scientific style manuals support the active over the passive voice.
For example, the American Medical Association's AMA Manual of Style recommends that "in general, authors should use the active voice, except in instances in which the author is unknown or the interest focuses on what is acted upon."2
The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA) has similar advice: "Prefer the active voice....The passive voice is acceptable in expository writing and when you want to focus on the object or recipient of the action rather than on the actor."3
These manuals and other books on science writing recommend using the active voice as much as possible. An author may decide to focus on the receiver—and thus use the passive voice—when the performer is unknown or of less importance. For many authors, this occurs most often in the Methods section.
Do scientific and medical journals, in their instructions for authors, advise them to write in the active voice?
Many journals indirectly do so by referring authors to a style manual that supports the active voice, or by publishing articles in which active-voice sentences are common and acceptable.
Although some journals ask authors to limit first-person pronouns or restrict them to certain sections, others not only encourage authors to write in an active style, but prefer them to use first-person pronouns over passive voice. Here is a small sampling:
Behavioral Ecology: "The first-person active voice is preferable to the impersonal passive voice."4
British Medical Journal: "Please write in a clear, direct, and active style....Write in the active [voice] and use the first person where necessary."5
The Journal of Neuroscience: "Overuse of the passive voice is a common problem in writing. Although the passive has its place—for example, in the Methods section—in many instances it makes the manuscript dull by failing to identify the author's role in the research....Use direct, active-voice sentences."6
The Journal of Trauma and Dissociation: "Use the active voice whenever possible: We will ask authors that rely heavily on use of the passive voice to re-write manuscripts in the active voice."7
Nature: "Nature journals like authors to write in the active voice ('we performed the experiment...') as experience has shown that readers find concepts and results to be conveyed more clearly if written directly."8
Ophthalmology: "Active voice is much preferred to passive voice, which should be used sparingly....Passive voice...does not relieve the author of direct responsibility for observations, opinions, or conclusions (e.g., 'The problem of blood flow was investigated...' vs. 'We investigated the problem of blood flow...')."9
Science: "Use active voice when suitable, particularly when necessary for correct syntax (e.g., 'To address this possibility, we constructed a lZap library ...,' not 'To address this possibility, a lZap library was constructed...')."10


Summary

For vigorous, clear writing, opt for the active voice unless you have good reasons for choosing the passive voice.
Choose the passive voice when the performer is unknown or when you want to focus on the action or the recipient of the action.
Writing from the first-person point of view (I, we), when necessary and natural, is accepted and encouraged by many journals. If you are not sure about a specific journal, however, study its guidelines and recent issues to get a feel for the journal's perspective on the passive voice and first-person pronouns.
When is a good time to use the passive voice in scientific writing? Read the article "The Value of the Passive Voice" to learn more.

2      Relative clauses with or without commas[2]


2        Relative clauses

Commas or no commas?
}  The conference which was well attended had more success than the one which was not.
}  The conference which I couldn’t attend was postponed anyway.

There are two types of relative clauses; those with and those without commas.

To define which one – don’t use commas [3]

Example: The objectives which we agreed on / [that] we agreed on were included in the meeting to discuss the report. 
We are defining which objectives were included in the meeting.   When we define which we do not use commas.  The relative clause is essential to understanding which ones.

To add information – use commas[4]

Commas are used when a relative clause refers to unessential information that can be omitted without affecting the meaning of the sentence. 
·         In the following examples, the relative clause is preceded by a comma and finished with a full stop.
Example from Time article:
Because of airplanes and telephones and now social media, human beings touch the lives of vastly more people than did our ancestors, who might have encountered only 150 people in their lifetime.
All social media involve a mixture of narcissism and voyeurism. Most of us display a combination of the two, which is why social media are flourishing faster and penetrating deeper than any other social development in memory.
·         In the following examples, the relative clause has a comma before it and after it.  This information could be removed.
The report, which was well received, was distributed to all participants.
The report on human rights, which focuses on the treatment of displaced people, has been presented to the Deputy Director of our division.
The objectives for the report, which were first agreed on last month, are now being revised. 

Which vs. that in defining relative clauses?[5]

Older grammar books and US grammarians make two firm points about the difference between the two types of clause:
·         Restrictive clauses are introduced by that and are not separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
·         Non-restrictive clauses are introduced by which and must be separated by commas from the rest of the sentence to indicate parenthesis.
This makes the whole matter seem neat and simple. But few writers have ever followed these rules systematically, and it’s easy to find examples in which which is used to start a restrictive clause. Sir Ernest Gowers, writing in the 1965 edition of Fowler’s Modern English Usage, comments rather sadly about this situation:
If writers would agree to regard that as the defining relative pronoun, and which as the non-defining, there would be much gain both in lucidity and in ease. Some there are who follow this principle now; but it would be idle to pretend that it is the practice either of most or of the best writers.
This is even more true today than when he wrote it; most modern grammar guides have caught up with the way people actually use the language and now say that either relative pronoun can be used with restrictive clauses. As an example, this sentence is quoted in Oxford English:
A suitcase which has lost its handle is useless.
The clause which has lost its handle is certainly restrictive. If you take it out, you are left with A suitcase is useless, obviously a different meaning to that intended. According to the traditional rules, the which ought to be that. Note, however, that there’s no problem understanding what the writer means!
Despite the grammatical shift, there remain some situations in which that is still regarded as preferable to which, though they’re difficult to tie down.
  • In clauses that follow impersonal constructions, such as it isthat is preferred: “It was the dog that died”.
  • Clauses that refer back to the words anythingnothingsomething, or everythinghave a slight preference for that over which: “Can you think of anything that still has to be done?”
  • Clauses that follow a superlative also tend to prefer that: “Thank you for the most superb dinner that I’ve ever eaten”.
According to the Chicago Manual (US style) ‘some people use “which” restrictively, which is more or less okay (and popular among writers of British English) (sic) as long as no commas are involved:
Pianos which have a fourth pedal to mute the strings are popular among apartment owners.’
Thus, many US people believe that ‘which’ used in defining clauses is wrong.  Be careful and sensitive to your audience.   It is a style choice.

3      Reported speech[6]

Task:  What is wrong?
}  Dr.    reminded that it is important to clarify the role and actions of the Committee.
}  X noted that the process started in mid-August and that a reply from the company was received on 23 October.             
Report writing is a formal task requiring careful command of tense shifts, use of correct structures following reporting verbs, and careful use of reporting verbs.  Time expressions  also shift back in time.  So, ‘now’ becomes ‘then’, ‘next week’ becomes ‘the following week’, ‘last week’ becomes ‘the week before’ etc.
When writing more informal documents or those intended for internal use (e.g. minutes of meetings) the rules are more relaxed.

Tense shifts in reported speech

If I had more assistance I could finish the report soon .  (I don’t have it but it sounds like a request for assistance and maybe it was given)
If I had had more assistance I could have finished the report. (means I never got any assistance and I didn’t finish the report)

Will vs. would


Will goes to would in reports.  The problem of whether the original meaning was real or hypothetical is unavoidable.  Try to clarify in the context.

Examples:
Wrong:  The Country Team (CT) informed us that the new President will stay in the position for a year and a half, so, some political stability is to be expected.
Right:  The Country Team (CT) informed us that the new President would stay in the position for a year and a half;  consequently, some political stability was to be expected.

Past perfect

Past perfect is used in reports when referring to an event which happened before the meeting.  It is used with certain expressions and only when necessary. 

Examples:
Wrong:  Dr  X    informed the Committee that she was already contacted by a section whose absenteeism rate due to psycho-social reasons was increasing.
Right:  Dr  X    informed the Committee that she had already been contacted by a section whose absenteeism rate due to psycho-social reasons was increasing.
Wrong:  Ms.       informed us that the problem was resolved. 
Right:  Ms.    informed us that the problem had been resolved.

Reporting verbs and their structures[7]


Many writers lack a good vocabulary of reporting verbs.  In annex 3 is a list to help you increase your repertoire.  Some of the verbs should only be used once in any one context.  Examples include the ones with (emphatic) next to them.  These are dramatic verbs intended to pinpoint only one point, not many.  They are often overused in United Nations reports. 
These verbs take a variety of structures. Annex 3 gives the structure in the third column.  Notice that a number of verbs can take more than one form.

Frequently misused reporting verbs


Verbs that are frequently misused:
i)                    Inform / remind
In the active voice, inform and remind must take a direct object:
He informed the participants about his recent mission to Iraq.
He reminded the team about the meeting.

In the passive voice, inform and remind don’t take a direct object
The participants were informed about his recent mission to Iraq.
The team were reminded about the meeting.

ii)                   Propose
Propose is used in a very formal context in English and reserved for high level meetings. Do not overuse it.  It is followed by a gerund, or a ‘that’ clause + subjunctive.
The Chair proposed adjourning the meeting.  The Chair proposed that we adjourn the meeting.
See also subjunctive with reported speech.
Iii              Brief someone on or about something
Passive:  to be briefed on or about something
1.       He asked how many people were briefed about the decision?
2.       Members of the committee were briefed on the plan last week.

4      Subjunctive


Correct these formal statements:
}  A suggested that D studies the E Schedule and makes suggestions. 
}  It is essential the meeting is convened by 1 July.

What can be classified as subjunctive?
1         Unreal past?  Wish / if only / would rather / as if / it’s time + past simple / past perfect
2         Present subjunctive?  
Certain idiomatic expressions:  Long live the queen.  Be that as it may.
The subjunctive uses only the base form of the verb.   Confusion arises because of register issues.
Formal usage requires base infinitive while informal usage allows simple present in present
structures and simple past in past structures. 

Exercise with subjunctive sentences

Some examples of phrases followed by subjunctive

We recommend/propose/suggest that…

It is proposed/recommended/suggested that…

It is important/essential/crucial/imperative that…


Write the correct form of the verbs in the blank spaces:


1. (be) It is crucial that lapses in communications systems ______ addressed.

2. (arrive) It is essential that he _______ on time for the meeting. 

3. (neg: arrive) It is important that he ________ late.

4. (understand) It is imperative that all staff ________ the warning system.

5. (understand) It is imperative that each staff member ________ the warning system.

6. (apply) We recommend that he ________ for the post.

7. (neg: grant)  We recommend that the office ___________ the transfer request at this time.

8. (meet) Our team proposes that the committee ________ to discuss the matter next week.

9. (passive: represent)  The report proposed that all parties ___________ in the negotiations.

10. (neg passive:change) The team suggested the procedure __________ until the end of the year.

Subjunctive

Expressions followed by the subjunctive

The subjunctive is used after the following expressions ‘it is + adjective ‘ to emphasize urgency or importance.   Examples:
Formal
Informal
It is essential that we be there.
It is essential that we are there.
It is crucial that you be there before the Director arrives.
It is crucial that you are there before the Director arrives.
It is important she attend the meeting.
It is important she attends the meeting.

NOTICE

The Subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms and tenses. In the examples below, the Subjunctive is not noticeable in the "you-form" of the verb, but it is noticeable in the "he-form" of the verb.
Examples:
·       You try to attend the meetings often. you-form of "try"
·       It is important that you try to attend the meetings often. Subjunctive form of "try" looks the same.
·       He tries to attend often. he-form of "try"
·       It is important that he try to attend often. Subjunctive form of "try" is noticeable here.

Verbs followed by the subjunctive

Verb + ‘that’ + someone + do something (formal subjunctive – (should) infinitive no ‘to’)

We ask that participants submit their documents well before the meeting.
to ask (that)
to propose (that)

to suggest (that)
to demand (that)
to recommend (that)
to stress (that)

to insist (that)
to request (that)

to urge (that)

The subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms and tenses. In the examples below, the subjunctive is not noticeable in the you-form of the verb, but it is noticeable in the she/he-form of the verb.
Examples in the present:
Formal
Informal
I suggest that he become the next Chair.
I suggest that he becomes the next Chair.
X recommends that you join the committee.
X recommends that you join the committee.
The chief insists that her employees be on time.
The chief insists that her employees are on time.
Note that you only notice the difference in third person singular (he, she) and with the verb ‘to be’.
Examples in the past:
Formal
Informal
They recommended that he take a mobile phone with him if he wants to stay connected.
They recommended that he takes or took a mobile phone with him if he wants to stay connected.
She suggested that we be on time tomorrow.
She suggested that we were on time tomorrow.
They insisted that we accept the recommendation.
They insisted that we accepted the recommendation.
She requested that the meeting be postponed.
She requested that the meeting was postponed.
Dr. Smith asked that Mark submit his report before the end of the month.
Dr. Smith asked that Mark submitted his report before the end of the month.
Donna requested that Frank come to the conference.
Donna requested that Frank came to the conference.

Should as subjunctive

After many of the above expressions, the word "should" is sometimes used to express the idea of subjunctiveness. This form is used more frequently in British English and is most common after the verbs "suggest," "recommend" and "insist."
Examples:
·       The doctor recommended that she should see a specialist about the problem.
·       X suggested that W should prepare harder for the final interview.

Many human rights reports use ‘should’ in their recommendatio


[1] http://www.biomedicaleditor.com/active-voice.html
[4] Sometimes called non-restrictive or non-defining relative clauses. 

[5] British English view   http://www.worldwidewords.org/articles/which.htm
American English view   http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/CMS_FAQ/Whichvs.That/Whichvs.That01.html